Creation of glucose in a plant

First, the carbon is created from cell respiration or from decaying organisms. 

Then the water arrives to the plant thought the tap roots, root hairs, or primary roots. The water then gets carried from the roots to leaves through transpiration. Transpiration includes cohesion, adhesion, and evaporation. The water is carried  in the xylem locate in the stem of the plant. 

The water is then split by photo system two. The oxygen is released. Then wavelength 680 bumps up the electrons to another energy level. This is then taken to the electron transport chain. This process creates ATP but not e bought to survive on. Then the electrons are taken to photo system one. Wavelength 700 again excites the electrons and then these make NADPH. 

Then the carbon is taken to the Calvin cycle. This cycle adds a one carbon group to a five carbon group using carbon fixation. Rubisco is in charge of this new molecule. Then ATP and more enzymes are used to continue to change the shape of the carbon molecule. NADP is created and so is ADP. The NADPH it hen brings the hydrogen to the carbon and oxygen to form glucose. It takes about six cycle in both systems to create it. 

Overall, these different molecules are bonded together through the use of ATP, electron transport chain, and enzymes in order to create energy for the organism to use . 

Hardy Weinberg problems make up

Here are some things to remember when solving Hardy Weinberg problems:

• p² + 2pq + q² = 1 and p + q = 1
• p = frequency of the dominant allele in the population
• q = frequency of the recessive allele in the population
• p² = percentage of homozygous dominant individuals
• q² = percentage of homozygous recessive individuals
• 2pq = percentage of heterozygous individuals
• remember to check what the problem really wants you to solve for

Example Problem from : http://www.k-state.edu/parasitology/biology198/hardwein.html

You have sampled a population in which you know that the percentage of the homozygous recessive genotype (aa) is 36%. Using that 36%, calculate the following:
----The frequency of the "aa" genotype.
So we know the "aa" must be the recessive allele so that means q^2 is 36% because q^2 is the population

----The frequency of the "a" allele.
Now to find the allele frequency, we first have to take the square root of .36 (36%). This means that the allele frequency is 0.6 or 60%   

----The frequency of the "A" allele.  
This allele frequency can be calculated by using the equation:     p + q = 1  Then we plug in the information. q=0.6 which means p must be 0.4 or 40%

----The frequencies of the genotypes "AA" and "Aa."
We must use the  equation:p² + 2pq + q² 
Then we plug in what we know  P=.4 Q= .6 p^2 = .16  q^2 = .36. So now we know that the frequency of the genotype "AA" is 16%. Now we plug in P and Q in order to solve for 2PQ = 2(.4)(.6)= .48
This means that the allele frequency for "Aa" is 48%

If you are still confused, watch this video: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xPkOAnK20kw

Plant Transpiration Lab

https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/15JuPRY_mvZSS1zNies8b-cnYrgz9bdzNssRGYmUWd1Q/edit?usp=sharing

The link above is where my table can be found.

Lab Questions:

1. Transpiration is the process where a plant takes in H2O and CO2 and creates glucose (or sucrose) with the help of light energy. The two forms of light energy are wavelength 680 and wavelength 700. This energy first excites the electrons and pushes them into a higher energy level. At the same time, H2O is split, releasing CO2. The electron is then taken to the electron transport chain by a transport protein. Some ATP is created but it is not enough to sustain the plant. Then the electron is taken to another protein receptor. The carbon is put into the Calvin cycle where it is joined together with a five carbon group. It will eventually create ATP.

2. The experimental controls were the timer, temperature, and how the plant was set up.

3. The fan and heater created the most  noticeable increase in the amount of transpiration that occurred in each plant. No, some plants were not well adapted to all of this molecular movement. Some did better with the heater than with the fan.

4. The fan created the largest amount of change because it added more molecular movement to the process of transpiration.

5. The Rubber Plant and the Zebra Plant has the highest transpiration rate. Each plant had a different rate because each is adapted to a specific biome.

6. If the plant's stomata were on the top, then the release of O2 and H2O would be slowed. Also, the intake of light would be less because the wavelengths would also have to go through the jelly.

7. The plant must loose water through transpiration because the weight of the water could weaken the stems. Additionally, too much water could throw of the balance of homeostasis in the plant.

Plant hormones: Auxin, Abscisic Acid, and Ethylene

Plants need hormones just like we do in order to continue homeostasis.

Auxin is a hormone in charge of  mainly growth (cell elongations) but also has other functions such as:

- elongation of cells

- root growth 

- cell division 

- stimulate flower growth

- stimulate fruit growth 

- promote the creation of ethylene

And much much more. Information can be found at: http://www.plant-hormones.info/auxins.htm

The next hormone I will describe is Ethylene. This hormone is gaseous that is mainly in charge of fruit ripening. It also has one of the
simplest structures. 

This hormones functions are: 

- stimulate root growth 

- stimulates fruit to ripen 

- induction of femaleness in dioecious flowers 

- stimulates flower opening 

And more. Information found at: http://www.plant-hormones.info/ethylene.htm

The last hormone is Abscisic Acid. This hormone is mainly in charge of abscission of fruits and bud dormancy. 
This hormones functions are:
- inhibit shoot growth but doesn't affect roots as much
- Induces seed to store protein 
- induce maintenance dormancy 
- stimulates closure of stomata 

Information from:  http://www.plant-hormones.info/abscisicacid.htm

Flower Day!!!

Flower Observations

Flowers have both male and female parts. They can either reproduce by the transfer of their pollen on insects or animals, or they can reproduce themselves. The Female parts are the pistil which is a group of carpels. Each carpel has an ovary that makes the ovules (the eggs that can be fertilized). The male reproductive parts of the flower are stamens. They are made up of an anther and a filament. The anther creates pollen. The pollen will then either be transferred or will it will fertilized  the eggs already present.   The fertilization of an ovule is called pollination. The ovules will then develop into seeds in the ovary. The flowers that have both male and female organs are called perfect flowers. The flowers that only have single sex organs are called imperfect flowers.

Information above from : http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/plants/printouts/floweranatomy.shtml

 

My Observations:

This flower had soft colorful petals that seemed to attract insects. Their leaves were a dark green color l, probably to help absorb sunlight. The flowers on the bush were evenly spaced out on the branches. The bush was tall an almost seemed like a small tree. The reproductive organs are protected by the petals allowing insects to have access.  

This flower has large open head and mutiple flower heads are on a single stem. The petals are soft and colorful, attracting insects. Pollen can be found on the inside of the petals and on the anthers. The leaves are thin and small but there are many on the bush. 

This flower has soft petals and an open head. The flower hads are more spaces  out on the bush. The leaves are waxy and the stems have thorns on the for protection. The stamens are in the middle of the flyover head an are a yellow color. The scent of the flower is also very strong.

This flowering plant has tall towers of flower heads. They are a light purple flower protected by a hard casing with thorns.I couldn't find the the male reproductive organs but the female organs are clustered in the center. The stem of the plant has large leaves to collect a large amont of sunlight. The leaves also have a wxy coating on them. 

 

 

  This slower has soft petals with a few flower on the stems. The leaves are thin and stringy and have sharp edges. All the reproductive organs are in the center of the flower. The stems are easily bent and  malliable. The center of the flower seems to have small petals in the center of the flower. I think they might be to protect the stamens.

 

 

Pintrest

 

 

"The Human Bumblebee"

Who is in charge here? The plants or the bees? Yes, the bees may feel like they are in control, but the flowers are the ones who attracted the bees in the first place. Through natural selection and evolution, flowers have "learned" to manipulate the bees into carrying their pollen from flower to flower, thus allowing them to reproduce.

Taken by Joaquin Gasper

 

The relationship between the bee and the flower is known as "coevolution." This means that "the two parties act on each other to advance their individual interests but wind up trading favors"(Pollan, P.2). The bee gets food, and the flower gets pollinated. Just like this, the potato is harvested by humans because we like its taste. In turn, the potatoes get to be cultivated. This lead to the realization that the plats are acting on us as much as we are acting on them.



Taken by Getty

 

Coevolution can also be seen in the apple because it tastes sweet to us. Also, cannabis also attracts humans because of its intoxication capabilities.  However, before this, flowers developed coevolution as a defense mechanism. Many of them originally had poison to warn other animals to leave them alone. Another reason plants are involved in coevolution is because they cant move themselves. They must rely on others to help them pollinate. Some plants developed burrs to attach to an animals fur. Plant also got us to move them into our gardens or on a farm. This is all part of nature and natural selection. Some people think that because the plants are "domesticated", they are no longer part of nature, but everything is still part of nature. Even when humans create hybrid plants, it should be considered part of natural selection. We can relate this concept to animals. Why do you think there are a lot more dogs than wolves? Its because we have domesticated dogs; therefore, the dogs have become more successful.



Owned by Discovery



Wolf v.s Rabbit Graph

The graph above depicts the population count in an artic tundra. Here, the primary consumer is the rabbit (prey) (White, yellow-green, lime-green, dark green) and the secondary consumer is the Wolf(predator). As we look at the graph, we can notice a relationship between population of the wolf and the rabbit. The population growth is determined by the amount of food and energy available, as well as the variations in each generation or species. An example of a variation is the multiple colors of fur a rabbit has. In the early generations, the rabbit population increased because their wasn't enough energy to sustain a wolf. Therefore, the wolf dies due to starvation and the imbalance of energy available for it to receive. However, the wolf population did increase when the rabbit population reached its peak and there was enough food to go around. The extra energy allowed for the wolf to reproduce. In the middle generation, we can see an example of an extinction in the case of the white rabbit. This was a result of the over-hunting of that certain type of rabbit. However, if this was actually data from a real arctic tundra, then the white rabbit would be less likely to go extinct because the color of its fur allows it to camouflage with the snow. Later, we do see that some other rabbits experience extinction but their population will eventually increase if an outside rabbit migrates into this area.

Breaking News! Volcanic Eruption in a River

Volcanic Eruption in a River?

 

 

That's right. Last Saturday night, there was a large shake of the ground, but this was not an earthquake. Immediately, there was a large smoke cloud mixed with ash and fire spewing out from the middle of  a river. The humid air was thick with ash. Lava began to take over that area of the river and reach the shore.

Photo taken by Dana Stephenson

This type of eruption can be categorized as a - "Phreatic: explosion of steam, water, ash and rock as magma comes in contact with groundwater or surface water." http://www.lenntech.com/volcanic-eruptions-environment.htm#ixzz2zZu8qoyCThe
Along with the steam, toxic gases are releases into the air. Carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide are some of the most harmful gases that can be released.This does not only poison the living organisms, but it can also make the soil infertile. The gases released also add to the "greenhouse effect" and can create acid rain. Ash from the explosion can also suffocate plants and animals too slow to escape the black cloud. Some ash can contain a chemical called Fluorine which can poison fresh water supplies for weeks.

Photo taken by Lothar Slabon

 Lava that has yet to reach the surface forms a crust and creates "pillow lava." This pillow lava immediately traps fish and any living organism in the area and encases it in a hard crust. Lava can also move quickly down stream along with the current of the river. Once lava reaches the shore it can start fires and burn the environment around it. This eruption can also block the original path of the river, causing floods that may drown some animals.

Photo taken by Peter Lik



A few animals were able to escape this death trap. Many of the birds, such as the Osprey Hawk, made it out of the disaster zone due to its fast flight ability. Also many of the quickest fish, such as the Pickerel, made it out of the lava in time because of the slim body and fast movements. However, many lives were lost in this catastrophe.

Photo taken by William C. Gladish



As a result, this area will be barren for a while, due to poisoned soil and water source damaged. Also, the surrounding environment has been damaged because of fire and horrible air quality.

Cited Works:

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_volcano

 

http://www.lenntech.com/volcanic-eruptions-environment.htm

 

http://volcanoes.usgs.gov/ash/water/

My Adventure: Exploring Freshwater Streams and Rivers



Notes and Observations:

 



Visiting all the rivers around the world is a hard task.(Even though freshwater is only 1% of all the water found on earth)  Depending on where the rivers  are located, their temperatures, minerals, and wildlife can be varied from one another.

Here is a drawing my friend, John Weeks, did of all the rivers of the USA. http://www.johnweeks.com/river_mississippi/map_us_miss.jpg

I'm afraid temperatures are too different so I cant give a range. However, I know most steams originate from snow melt or ground water that has reached the surface. Here are some common minerals found in freshwater streams and rivers:

• Calcium
• Magnesium
• Sodium
• Potassium

The amount of sunlight a river receives depends on how much sediment is found in the water at that time. The end of the river will allow less sunlight in because it will have all the sediment that has been carried down from upstream. The amount of shelter a river had also depends on the area where it is located. Some forms of shelter include dams, caves, tree roots, and surrounding vegetation. 





 

This is a picture my friend, Samuel Elsaesser  took as we explored the Amazon River.
http://www.wackyowl.com/worlds-most-dangerous-rivers/

Now exploring abiotic aspects of a freshwater biome is great, but the biotic aspects of this biome are more exciting!!!

 

 

This typical river food web was created by my other naturalist enthusiast, Jan Porincbak
http://aboutenvironment.wordpress.com/2010/03/28/freshwater-availability-in-the-world/.

This a great food web because it  shows how humans interact with the freshwater river biome. The producers found in this biome are the plant life in and around rivers. Algae, Duckweed, and Cattail are some of the many producers in this biome, providing the living organisms around them with oxygen and another source of energy.   

 

Ruth Babylon especially loved taking picture of Cattail. http://www.radfordpl.org/wildwood/today/Plant_articles/Cattail.htm

Cattails are more than just a cover for birds and small animals, they can also be useful to humans. They can be burned to keep bugs away, or they can be ground up to make pancakes and bread.  Cattails are also well adapted to their watery environment. Their leaves have spongy cross-sections that contain air channels to help tem float. Also, their fluffy seeds can be easily picked up by animals and the wind.

 

The consumers found in this biome consist of 700 different species of fish and 1,200 species of  amphibians, mollusks, and insects. The adaptations in fish can be seen in their body and fin shape. The Largemouth Bass and the Trout have elongated bodies and a forked tails which allows them to swim faster in water. The Pickerel has a slim body and its fins are placed near the back of the fish, allowing it to shoot through the water to catch their prey.

 

This Pickerel was drawn by Joseph R Tomelleri. http://mdc.mo.gov/fishing/fishing-how-tos/fish-adaptations

 

 

Another Freshwater consumer is the beaver. Beaver's make their homes/dams in slow-moving rivers. An adaptation of the beaver is that its lips close behind its front teeth, preventing water from entering while chewing wood underwater. The beaver also has a clear eyelid that allows it to see underwater.

 

 

 

 

 



Cheryl Reyndolds took this picture of a beaver sitting on the bank of a river.



 

Some of these consumers can also be considered decomposers. Cladocerans ( A.K.A water flea) are small crustaceans that feed on plants and plankton. However, they have been know to feed on decaying organic material, making them decomposers. Saprolegnia is a genus of water mold that breaks down dead material. It may also infect injured organisms such as fish or other animals and cause fungal infections. 



 





Here is a fish that is being broken down by Saprolegnia. (taken by Thomas Volk)http://botit.botany.wisc.edu/toms_fungi/saprolegnia.html



 It may seem as if everything is against one another, but  there are some symbiotic relationships in this biome. There a small animal called a Green Hydra . The hydra receives its green color from the green algae that lives inside it. The hydra provides protection from the environment and the algae provides oxygen and sugar.

 

 



Heather Angel took this amazing picture of a  Green Hydra.
http://www.naturalvisions.co.uk/ImageDetail.aspx?imdet=36017

 The main forms of influence from humans are negative. Water and air pollution are the most detrimental to this biome. Another issue is the over-fishing or over-hunting of endangered species. However, there are some people who have started conservation efforts that have helped some rivers like the Amazon. I hope to see more improvements made in this area. Well, I cant wait to visit the next biome!!!

 

 

 

 

Works Cited:

http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/En-Ge/Fresh-Water-Natural-Composition-of.html

http://bioexpedition.com/freshwater-biome/

http://www.wisegeek.org/what-animals-are-most-common-in-a-freshwater-biome.htm

http://biomesfirst.wikispaces.com/Freshwater

http://microbezoo.commtechlab.msu.edu/zoo/zwp0321.html

http://aboutenvironment.wordpress.com/2010/03/28/freshwater-availability-in-the-world/

http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/exhibits/biomes/freshwater.php

http://www.radfordpl.org/wildwood/today/Plant_articles/Cattail.htm

http://mdc.mo.gov/fishing/fishing-how-tos/fish-adaptations

http://academics.smcvt.edu/dfacey/AquaticBiology/Freshwater%20Pages/Cladocerans.html

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saprolegnia



Animal Behavior Lab: Pill Bugs

 

Abstract: In this lab, we wanted to observe the behavior of pill bugs or "rollie pollies." To do so, we setup three different experiments. In each of these experiments, one chamber was a control and the other was the dependent variable. In each of the experiments, we tested one of the five senses (touch, taste, smell...). experiment one proved that the pill bugs enjoy a more wet environment. The second experiment proved that the pill bug is sensitive to strong odors and would prefer to move away from the center of the smell. The third experiment proved that the pill bug doesn't feel uncomfortable in a colder environment.

 

 

Introduction:  Animal behavior is how an animal interacts with its environment.  This behavior can be triggered by a stimulus, taught by a parent, or an instinct that doesn't have to be learned. The first experiment involves testing a if the pill bugs prefer a wet or dry environment. The second experiment tests if the pill bugs prefer an environment with a strong odor. The third experiment tests if a pill bug prefers a cold or warm environment. For each experiment, we posed a proximate question. This means that we a questioning the reaction to an external stimulus or an internal mechanism of an organism. Here's and example: How will a pigeon react to the sound of an eagles call? Another type of question you can ask about behavior is an ultimate question. Ultimate questions ask about an organisms relationship with evolution (natural selection, survival). We are also testing taxis  movement behaviors. Taxis movement is when an organism either moves towards or away from a stimulus. An example is when algae moves towards sunlight so it can complete photosynthesis.  The opposite is kinesis, an organisms movement in response to a stimulus but it does not have a specific direction and or is random.

 

 

 

Hypotheses: 

1.) If pill bugs are exposed to a wet and dry environment, then they will likely move to the wet environment because they have gills that help them breathe.

 

2.) If pill bugs are exposed to a strong odor, then they will move away from the odor because they have a effective sense of smell

 

3.) If pill bugs are exposed to a warm and cold environment, they will prefer the colder one because they usually live under rocks or in the shade.

 

 

Materials: 

- 10 pill bugs

- two platforms with 2 different chambers

- timer

- data sheet

- ammonia

- ice pack

- water

- paper filter

- cover for chambers (only used for the first and second experiment)

 

Procedure:

 

First Experiment-

1. put down paper filter in each chamber

2. drop water on one side and keep the other dry

3. put in pill bugs

4. cover with a paper

5. record data every 30 seconds

 

Second Experiment-

1. put down paper filter in each chamber

2. pour water on one side and ammonia on the other

3. put in pill bugs

4. cover with a paper

5. record data every 30 seconds

 

Third Experiment-

1. put down paper filter in each chamber

2.  put an icepack under one side and stabilize the other, making sure the platform is level

3. put in pill bugs

4. record data every 30 seconds

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

(FYI: I tried to do a scatter plot graph but the green line did not show up well)

 

 

Conclusion: In these experiments, we explored the different aspects of behavior of the pill bug when its put into different environments. My hypothesis for the first experiment was correct, shown by the data tables. The pill bugs did prefer to be in a moist environment. This response is a classical conditioning response because the pill bugs are responding to the stimulus of their environment. the opposite is operant conditioning that are learned by enforcement, punishment, or reward. This movement can also be considered a Fixed Action Pattern.


Example of a Fixed Action Pattern

A Fixed Action Pattern (FAP) will continue until it is completed by the organism. The pill bugs will continue to move until they reach the wet chamber in the experiment. My second hypothesis was also correct because the pill bugs did stay in the control chamber with only water. This is also a classical conditioning response because the bugs tended to move away from the ammonia chamber on the platform. This is also a FAP because the bugs continued to move away from the ammonia chamber. My final hypothesis was also supported by the data we collected because the majority of the pill bugs didn't avoid the colder chamber. Again, we see the classical condition response because the pill bugs migrated toward the colder chamber on the platform. This movement pattern could be the result of imprinting.

Imprinting is how younger animals tend to follow a parent. Additionally, it means that an animal has learned to recognize an object, individual, or location without the presence of reward. An example of a imprinting is how mother goose imprints on their gosling in order to encourage them to follow and learn quickly how to behave. One aspect of error could be that the platform might not have been touching the icepack completely. Another could have been that some water was left in the chamber after we cleaned the platform between experiments.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 



Last week an test # 8

Last we we mainly went over the immune system by answering a quiz. Check my last post if you want to see what I wrote. The quiz covered:

-non-specific immunity 

This is our bodies diet defense against "invaders" It attacks anything that isn't us.  (Anything that has a different cell receptor) 

- chemical barriers 

- skin

- inflammation 

- histamines 

Above is a depiction o inflammation and histamines being released into the body. They send signals to the brain to dial ate your capillaries, bring more fluid to the infected area.

- antigens 

- macrophages/phagocytes 

A macrophage is a type of phagocyte that desolves antigens by using its lysosomes. 

- helper T cells

These cells pass on the antigens information to the B cells which then create antibodies specifically for that antigen. The antibodies mark the antigen so that the killer T cell can find it more easily and destroy it. 

- killer T cells 

- memory B cells 

- plasma cells (create antibodies) 

- cell receptors 

Above, I only gave a summary of some of the topics covered, check my immune system quiz for a more in depth answer.

Then we had the test the next class so I have nothing to report for that day.

If you want to Lear more about allergies and why your body responds to different foods and chemicals, click this link: 

http://www.histamine-intolerance.info/#sthash.rFzrozoR.LDMRbZxK.dpbs

Immune System Quiz!!!

 

Quiz-
Intro: first of all, the immune system is what protects us from infections. The immune system has two major branches: Innate (non-specific) and adaptive (specific).

Question 1.)
The elements for this part of the immune system are anatomical barriers, secretory molecules, and cellular components. This response only recognizes an antigen but not what type of antigen it is. Our  barriers are our skin and internal epithelial layers, movement of intestine, and Broncho-Pulmonary cilia . Our skin has a very low ph making it hard for bacteria to live there. It also has other bacteria (normal flora) and chemicals that can push "invaders" out of the way. Stomach acid also acts as a "fighter of invaders" because of its high ph scale.

If the invader gets through our skin (a cut or scratch) then we have a response called inflammation. When the infection swells, heat is increases and we send in macrophage. The phagocyte will engulf the antigen and the lysosomes inside the macrophage will dissolve the antigen. Some parts of the antigen will form an major histocompatibility complex (MHC) type two. This will then be presented on the outer membrane of the phagocyte. This will help with the specific response of our immune system.

 A phagocyte can determine which cells are antigens by the cell's receptors. The most common phagocyte is the neutrophils, which are known for being fast and abundant. others phagocytes are macrophages and dendritic cells.

 

Question 2.)

There are two types of lymphocyte called A and T. B lymphocytes are made in the bone marrow and they are in charge of the humoral response. a humoral response is defined by  the response that happens in the fluid of your body. B lymphocytes produce antibodies specific for that antigen. It also produces memory B cells so that our body will have that type of immunity for that specific antigen for the rest of our lives.

T lymphocytes are in the thymus and are in charge of a cell-mediated response to antigens. This means that the response attacks already infected cells. T lymphocytes create "killer" cells that target infected cells create surface contact. After that, the cell releases target - oriented granules into the other cell. Then the cell will  be broken down.

 

 

Both of these responses are controlled by the helper T cells. The helper T cells us the shape of the antigen given to them by MHC2 (I mentioned it earlier). It then passes on this information to the B cells. The helper T cells also then activate the killer T cells. Without the helper T cells, our immune system would be in trouble. That's why HIV is so deadly because the helper T cells are infected by the virus.

 

Question 3.)

 

This question connects easily with the concepts I just talked about. Both the T and the B lymphocytes create what are called memory cells besides the antibodies and the killer T cell. The memory cell is in charge of memorizing the receptor shape of a specific antigen.

 

 

 

The picture above shows how the memory T cell passes on information about the antigen to the B cell. The B cell is now "equipped" with the right "tools" so it can attack the virus again and have it be more effective. To reiterate what I said in the previously answered questions, the T helper cell initially gets it information from the MHC2. This is the result of the phagocyte digesting the antigen, and then forming a peptide bond with one of the antigens proteins. This newly formed protein is then placed on the cell membrane where other "defender" cells like the T helper cell can get the information needed to make antibodies specifically for that antigen.

 

 

The image above shows the transferring of information from the phagocyte to the T cell. It well then keep this information if the same antigen shows up in the body system. Connecting this to the flu, this is why people get the flu each year. The flu is constantly changing due to mutations in its DNA. This is why its so hard for doctors to find an immediate cure. Also, the flu shot is just a predication of what the flu will look like this year.

 

 

 

Question 4.)
So we know the immune system attacks antigens or invaders in our body ,but how do our cells know the difference? This takes us back to the concept of B cells and T cells. Both of these types of cells have receptors that are created at random. This means that a B cell could create an antibody for a protein needed to survive such as insulin. One way our body prevents this from happening is by placing insulin of another bodily protein in the environment where that B cell or T cell is being made. If any of the "attacker" cells being made in the bone marrow or thymus have a receptor that matches a vital protein, it will be destroyed before it has a chance to enter the blood stream.





However, once the B cells and T cells enter the blood stream, the can now destroy antigens that enter the system without the worry of being destroyed. T cells and B cells use their cell receptors as communication from the antigen back to their own cell and respond accordingly.



 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 However, this process isn't perfect. If a mutation occurs, then your body might start attack your own cells. The result is then called an Auto-Immune Diseases.

 

 

 

 

 

Works Used:

http://ezinearticles.com/?Immune-Response---A-Look-at-How-the-Body-Naturally-Fights-the-Flu-Virus&id=3984933

 

http://pathmicro.med.sc.edu/ghaffar/innate.htm

 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z3M0vU3Dv8E

 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=O1N2rENXq_Y

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5w60x23O5P0